Sources and references

1. Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, et al. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. Journal of Pathology. 1999.

   HPV DNA was found in 99.7% of cervical cancers.

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2. de Sanjosé S, Quint WG, Alemany L, et al. Human papillomavirus genotype attribution in invasive cervical cancer: a retrospective cross-sectional worldwide study. Lancet Oncology. 2010.

   HPV16 and HPV18 together account for around 7 in 10 cervical cancers.

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3. Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998.

   Around 9 in 10 new HPV infections cleared within two years.

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4. Chesson HW, Dunne EF, Hariri S, Markowitz LE. The estimated lifetime probability of acquiring human papillomavirus in the United States. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2014;41(11):660–664.

   Estimated lifetime probability of HPV infection: 84.6% of women and 91.3% of men with at least one partner.

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5. Mesher D, Panwar K, Thomas SL, et al. The impact of the national HPV vaccination program in England using the bivalent HPV vaccine: surveillance of type-specific HPV in young females, 2010–2016. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2018.

   HPV16/18 prevalence in women aged 19 to 21 fell from 14.0% (2010–11) to 1.6% (2016).

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6. Falcaro M, Castañon A, Ndlela B, et al. The effects of the national HPV vaccination programme in England, UK, on cervical cancer and grade 3 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia incidence: a register-based observational study. Lancet. 2021.

   Cervical cancer rates were 87% lower in women offered the vaccine at age 12 to 13, 62% lower at 14 to 16 and 34% lower at 16 to 18. CIN3 rates were 97% lower in the youngest group.

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7. Palmer TJ, Kavanagh K, Cuschieri K, et al. Invasive cervical cancer incidence following bivalent human papillomavirus vaccination: a population-based observational study of age at immunization, dose, and deprivation. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2024.

   No cases of invasive cervical cancer in Scottish women vaccinated at age 12 to 13, up to 2020.

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8. Barnabas RV, Brown ER, Onono MA, et al. Efficacy of single-dose human papillomavirus vaccination among young African women (KEN SHE trial). NEJM Evidence. 2022.

   A single dose was around 97.5% effective at preventing persistent HPV16/18 infection.

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9. Joura EA, Giuliano AR, Iversen OE, et al. A 9-valent HPV vaccine against infection and intraepithelial neoplasia in women. New England Journal of Medicine. 2015.

   The 9-valent vaccine (Gardasil 9) protects against HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58.

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10. Rebolj M, Cuschieri K, Mathews CS, et al. Extension of cervical screening intervals with primary human papillomavirus testing: observational study of English screening pilot data. BMJ. 2022;377:e068776.

    In 1.3 million women, CIN3 or worse was found in 1.21 per 1,000 people screened three years after a negative HPV test, compared with 4.52 per 1,000 after a negative smear (cytology) test.

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11. Parkin DM. Cancers attributable to infection in the UK in 2010. British Journal of Cancer. 2011.

    Share of UK anal (90%), vaginal (around 63%), vulval (40%) and penile (40%) cancers attributable to HPV.

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12. Schache AG, Powell NG, Cuschieri KS, et al. HPV-related oropharynx cancer in the United Kingdom: an evolution in the understanding of disease etiology. Cancer Research. 2016.

    Around 52% of UK oropharyngeal cancers diagnosed in 2002 to 2011 were HPV-positive.

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13. The Eve Appeal. HPV: the facts. A guide to human papillomavirus and the cancers it can cause. 2025 (reviewed September 2024).

    Patient guide covering HPV transmission, genital warts, prevention, each HPV-associated cancer and support services.

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14. Brown KF, Rumgay H, Dunlop C, et al. The fraction of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors in England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the United Kingdom in 2015. British Journal of Cancer. 2018.

    Around 21% of UK cervical cancers are attributable to smoking.

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UK incidence, death and survival figures come from Cancer Research UK cancer statistics. Screening and vaccination guidance comes from the NHS and UK Health Security Agency. Content last reviewed October 2026.